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UNIT  II

CARBOHYDRATES


 SHORT ESSAY

 1.HOW ARE CARBOHYDRATES CLASSIFIED? LIST THE SOURCES AND FUNCTIONS OF    CARBOHYDRATES.

Carbohydrates are biomolecules that consist of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in carbohydrate is 2:1, which is similar to water.

The Nutrition Sources of Carbohydrates

There are both healthy and unhealthy sources of carbohydrates. Healthy sources of carbohydrates include both food sources-animal and plant products, such as fresh fruits, vegetables, corn, potatoes, milk and milk products. Unhealthy sources include soda, white bread, artificial sugar, pastries, and other highly processed foods.

Carbohydrates can be found in different forms, such as sugars, starch, and fibres. Here is a list of carbohydrates from different sources and different forms.

Types of Carbohydrates

There are two types of carbohydrates:

Simple carbohydrates.

Starchy Carbohydrates.

Fibrous Carbohydrates.

Complex carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates cannot be produced by the human body. So, they should be taken through diet.

Simple Carbohydrates

Fresh fruits like apples, oranges, banana, pineapple, sweet potatoes, berries are rich sources of healthy simple carbohydrates. Foods that have artificial sugars and highly processed foods are unhealthy sources of it. Milk is also a rich source of simple carbohydrates.

Starchy Carbohydrates

Grains are rich sources of carbohydrates. Grains include whole grains, grain bread, etc. Some foods that are rich in carbohydrates are beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and some nuts. Cereals are also a rich source of carbohydrates.

Fibrous Carbohydrates

Fibrous carbohydrates can be found in fresh vegetables like pumpkin, carrot, tomatoes, beans, broccoli, cucumbers, squash, etc.

Complex Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are found in beans, peas, whole grains, barley, oats, wild rice, brown rice, etc.

Complex carbohydrates are good carbohydrates as they contain starch and fibre. Also, these carbohydrates do not spike sugar levels in the blood thereby helping in minimal sugar level in blood.

Functions of Carbohydrates

Following are the important carbohydrates functions:

These are the main source of energy.

It is a part of some connecting tissues.

These also help in maintaining a healthy digestive system.

The fibre in carbohydrates helps in lowering blood cholesterol.

It retains protein from being burned so it can be used to build and repair.


2.Explain in detail digestion and absorption of carbohydrates.

All the food you eat goes through your digestive system so it can be broken down and used by the body. Carbohydrates take a journey starting with the intake at the mouth and ending with elimination from your colon. Theres a lot that happens between the point of entry and exit.

1. The mouth

You begin to digest carbohydrates the minute the food hits your mouth. The saliva secreted from your salivary glands moistens food as its chewed.

Saliva releases an enzyme called amylase, which begins the breakdown process of the sugars in the carbohydrates youre eating.

2. The stomach

From there, you swallow the food now that its chewed into smaller pieces. The carbohydrates travel through your esophagus to your stomach. At this stage, the food is referred to as chyme. Your stomach makes acid to kill bacteria in the chyme before it makes its next step in the digestion journey.

3. The small intestine, pancreas, and liver

The chyme then goes from the stomach into the first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum. This causes the pancreas to release pancreatic amylase. This enzyme breaks down the chyme into dextrin and maltose.

From there, the wall of the small intestine begins to make lactase, sucrase, and maltase. These enzymes break down the sugars even further into monosaccharides or single sugars.

These sugars are the ones that are finally absorbed into the small intestine. Once theyre absorbed, theyre processed even more by the liver and stored as glycogen. Other glucose is moved through the body by the bloodstream.

The hormone insulin is released from the pancreas and allows the glucose to be used as energy.

         4. Colon

Anything thats left over after these digestive processes goes to the colon. Its then broken down by intestinal bacteria. Fiber is contained in many carbohydrates and cannot be digested by the body. It reaches the colon and is then eliminated with your stools.


Carbohydrate Absorption

A restricted alimentary limb also affects carbohydrate absorption, but not to any detrimental degree. Because as much as 40% of the body's amylase is produced by the parotid and submandibular glands, carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth. Therefore, more than enough absorption of carbohydrates is maintained, even with the restricted alimentary limb. In fact, if carbohydrate intake is excessive, weight loss will be inadequate. This is the reason for advising patients to eat a limited-carbohydrate diet. Increasing the alimentary limb length also increases the absorption of carbohydrates.


  3.Write note on excessive intake of carbohydrates and what happens in deficiency.


Excess carbohydrate intake places a large metabolic load on the body. When the body constantly has high levels of blood sugars (the end point of food sugar and starch) to deal with over time, this leads to weight gain, poor metabolic health and an increased risk of heart disease.

        The body can store extra carbohydrates in your muscles and liver for use when you're not getting enough carbohydrates in your diet. A carbohydrate-deficient diet may cause headaches, fatigue, weakness, difficulty concentrating, nausea, constipation, bad breath and vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

4.What is the calorific value of carbohydrate? List the key differences between Kwashiorkor and Marasmus.

Carbohydrates provide 4 calories per gram, protein provides 4 calories per gram, and fat provides 9 calories per gram.

Kwashiorkor

Marasmus


Causes


Deficiency of proteins.

Deficiency of both proteins and calories.


Age factors


Between the age of 6 months and 3 years of age.

Between the age of 6 months and 1 year of age.


Oedema


Present.

Absent.


Subcutaneous fat


Present.

Absent.


Weight loss


There is some weight loss.

There is severe weight loss.


Symptoms


The thinning of muscles and limbs.

The thinning of limbs.


Fatty liver cells


There is an enlargement in the fatty liver cells.

There is no enlargement in the fatty liver cells.


Appetite


Voracious feeder.

Poor appetite.


The texture of the skin


Flaky paint appearance on the skin.

Dry and wrinkled skin.


Requirement of Nutrition


Adequate amounts of proteins.

Adequate amounts of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.



5.What is the daily requirement of carbohydrates? Explain the metabolism of carbohydrates.

The primary role of carbohydrate is to provide energy to all cells in the body and dietary fiber. Adults should consume 4565% of their total calories from carbohydrates, except for younger children who need a somewhat higher proportion of fat in their diets. A maximum intake of 25% of added sugars is suggested.

Carbohydrate metabolism is the whole of the biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.

Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. 

Metabolic pathways. 

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the process of breaking down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while storing energy released during this process as ATP and NADH. Nearly all organisms that break down glucose utilize glycolysis.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. It is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. In humans, substrates for gluconeogenesis may come from any non-carbohydrate sources that can be converted to pyruvate or intermediates of glycolysis 

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen. In the liver, muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs to provide glucose when necessary. A single glucose molecule is cleaved from a branch of glycogen, and is transformed into glucose-1-phosphate during this process. This molecule can then be converted to glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in the glycolysis pathway. 

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis refers to the process of synthesizing glycogen. In humans, glucose can be converted to glycogen via this process. Glycogen is a highly branched structure, consisting of the core protein Glycogenin, surrounded by branches of glucose units, linked together.

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